From then on, foreign policy shifted towards more peaceful relationships with continental Catholic countries, a shift which eventually led to the Treaty of London ending the war with the Iberian powers in 1604. In March 1603, James VI succeeded Elizabeth I and became James I, king of Scotland, England and Ireland. Both in America and in Asia, Britain also contended with other European powers who were beginning to show interest in overseas ventures: the French were settling for regions in North America while the Dutch, whose commercial influence spread like wildfire at the beginning of the 17 th century, gradually replaced the Portuguese in Southeast Asian territories. The English had been late to set their eyes on America where the Spanish had been since the late 15 th century, and equally late to develop trade in Southeast Asia where the Portuguese dominated. At home, England had been at war with Catholic Spain since 1585, and though hostilities officially took place on the European stage, battles were also fought along the American shores as well as in the Indian Ocean. “Portingall and Spayne”, whose countrymen authored the map appended to the letter, were England’s religious, political and commercial rivals both in Europe and abroad. Despite its intended illustrative purpose then, the map could remain shrouded in hermeneutic opacity.Ĩ In this particular instance, the author of the letter ascribes the confusing nature of the document to sophisticated foreign deceit. While the quote reveals that a “little Mappe or carde” might be of use to an English person involved in commercial or colonial ventures, it also implies the sheer complexity of wielding and making sense of the cartographic medium, which is why the map might require “labour to understande” it. 3 In the Divers Voyages, as in other writings of a promotional nature, Hakluyt formulated strategies which he presented to potential backers in courtly and merchant circles, singling out those who might be interested in pursuing or financing the venture. 2 In that respect, the appeal set the tone for early 17 th -century discourses on colonies and trade in London circles, and seemed to foreshadow a surge in the interest for maps in the years leading up to the chartering of those companies. This particular excerpt, drawn from a “booke made by the right worshipful Master Robert Thorne” to the “Lorde Ambassadour for King Henrie the eight” edited by Hakluyt and included in his Divers Voyages, is an appeal to England’s influential statesmen for the expansion of England’s commerce in the New World (as suggested by the title of Hakluyt’s book), but also in the Old World (as implied by the letter at hand advertising a “newe trade of spicerie” in the Moluccas). 33.ħ Writing in the two decades preceding the chartering of the East India Company and the Virginia Company, Richard Hakluyt was one of the pioneering English promoters of overseas commercial and colonial projects. 3 Title quoted from Richard Hakluyt, Divers Voyages (ed.2 Richard Hakluyt, Divers Voyages (ed.Laetitia Coussement-Boillot (University of Paris) and Professor Anne-Marie Miller-Blaise (Sorbonne Nouvelle) whose respective seminars on early modern female authors and Jacobean drama have helped me broaden my understanding of British Renaissance literature as I was working on my thesis.ĥ I extend my thanks to Mathis Marquier for his philosophical input and to Hortense Naas for her insightful comments, but also to my colleagues and friends at Cambridge for providing a warm and stimulating environment throughout this unusual year.Ħ Finally, I am grateful for the unwavering support of my partner, friends and family at every stage of this project. Catherine Sutherland, deputy librarian at the Pepys Library (Magdalene College) for helping me find and access the Ferrar Papers from the 17 th -century manuscript collection.Ĥ In addition, my gratitude goes to Dr. Members of staff at the University Library, in particular Mr Liam Sims (rare books specialist), have also been precious guides in my quest for rare books and original prints. Lucille Munoz, for their assistance with a number of elusive primary sources and the page system in early modern print. Martin Crowley for his guidance and kindness throughout my readership at Queens’ College, Cambridge.ģ At Queens’, my thanks also go to the librarians, Dr Tim Eggington and Ms. Particularly crucial to the well-conducting of this thesis were her advice, comments and corrections throughout the year, but also her meticulous proofreading at the final stages of this work.Ģ I would also like to thank Dr. 1 First and foremost, I am deeply grateful to my research supervisor, Professor Ladan Niayesh, whose unfailing patience, eye-opening expertise and encouragements have been invaluable.
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